Fear of Failure in Youth Sport: Understanding the Hidden Pressure on Young Elite Athletes
February 13, 2026
In competitive sports, failure is inevitable. But for many young elite athletes, failure is not just disappointing—it is threatening. In a comprehensive doctoral investigation, Sagar (2007) examined the psychological roots, lived experiences, and developmental pathways of fear of failure among young elite athletes. The research represents one of the first in-depth explorations of fear of failure in youth sport and offers compelling evidence that fear of failure can significantly affect performance, well-being, family relationships, and long-term development (Sagar, 2007). Across three interconnected studies, the thesis documents how young athletes perceive failure, how those perceptions shape emotional and behavioural responses, and how parental behaviors contribute to both the development and reduction of fear of failure.
What Young Elite Athletes Fear
The first study explored how athletes aged 14–17 interpret failure in high-performance sport. Failure was not simply defined as losing. Instead, athletes described deeper, more personal consequences:
Diminished sense of self-worth
Loss of achievement or progress
Emotional distress (e.g., shame, embarrassment)
Fear of negative judgment from parents, coaches, and selectors
These perceived consequences formed the psychological foundation of fear of failure (Sagar, 2007). When athletes believed failure would damage their identity or social standing, fear intensified. Fear of failure was shown to extend beyond competition. Athletes reported spillover effects into schoolwork, relationships, mood, and overall well-being. Coping strategies varied, but avoidance-based responses were common—suggesting that fear often narrows behavioural flexibility rather than enhancing resilience.
The Family Factor: How Fear Is Transmitted
One of the most important contributions of the research is its examination of intergenerational transmission. In a study of three intact families of elite athletes aged 13–14, Sagar (2007) identified three primary mechanisms through which fear of failure is transmitted:
Parental punitive behavior
Parental controlling behavior
High parental expectations
Parents and athletes frequently shared similar fears: fear of negative evaluation, fear of not achieving aspirations, fear of ranking loss, and fear of deselection. Through repeated parent–child interactions, these fears became embedded in the athlete’s motivational framework. The findings align with achievement motivation theory, particularly avoidance-based regulatory processes. When athletes internalize the belief that failure threatens approval, status, or belonging, they become oriented toward avoiding mistakes rather than pursuing mastery (Sagar, 2007). This insight reframes fear of failure not as an individual weakness, but as a socially constructed phenomenon reinforced through interaction patterns.
Can Fear of Failure Be Reduced?
The third study tested a cognitive-behaviourally informed intervention to reduce fear of failure among both athletes and parents. Two formats were used:
A one-off parental education seminar
A ten-week one-to-one intervention with an athlete and her parents
The outcomes were promising. Parents reduced punitive reactions and adopted more constructive communication styles. Both athletes and parents showed reduced fear of failure after the intervention. Importantly, avoidance-oriented achievement goals decreased for most athletes (Sagar, 2007). This provides rare empirical support for the idea that fear of failure is modifiable through targeted education and structured parent engagement.
Practical Implications for Coaches and Parents
Reframe failure as information, not identity: Shift post-performance discussions from outcome (“You lost”) to process (“What did you learn?”).
Monitor language and reactions: Subtle cues of disappointment or conditional approval can reinforce fear-based motivation.
Reduce avoidance goals: Encourage mastery-oriented targets (skill development, effort quality) rather than purely normative comparisons.
Educate parents proactively: Parent-focused workshops or structured conversations can interrupt fear transmission cycles.
Why This Research Matters
Sport is one of the most significant achievement domains in childhood and adolescence. Yet, prior to this work, fear of failure in youth sport had received limited scientific attention. Sagar’s thesis extends fear-of-failure research beyond academic and business contexts, situating it firmly within elite youth sport (Sagar, 2007).
The research demonstrates that fear of failure:
Is rooted in perceived social and self-evaluative consequences
Is shaped by parental interaction patterns
Influences achievement goal orientation
Can be reduced through targeted intervention
For practitioners in sport psychology, coaching, and youth development, this work provides a conceptual and applied foundation for assessing and treating fear of failure in competitive environments.
Dr. Kyle Stull
Reference
Sagar, S. S. (2007). Fear of failure among young elite athletes (Doctoral thesis, Loughborough University).
The Hidden Cognitive Cost of Smartphones: Why Mere Presence Matters
January 22, 2026
Smartphones are often framed as distractions only when they buzz, light up, or are actively used. However, emerging research suggests that the cognitive cost of smartphones begins much earlier, simply with their presence. In a series of controlled laboratory experiments, Ward and colleagues examined whether having one’s own smartphone nearby, even when silenced and unused, reduces available cognitive capacity. Their findings were clear: the mere presence of a smartphone impairs working memory and fluid intelligence, drawing on limited attentional resources even when individuals believe they are fully focused. This phenomenon, termed “smartphone-induced brain drain,” challenges the assumption that distraction is only a behavioral problem. Instead, it reveals a more subtle cognitive tax that operates beneath conscious awareness.
Cognitive Capacity Without Distraction
Across two large experiments, participants were asked to complete demanding cognitive tasks while their phones were either placed on the desk, kept in a pocket or bag, or left in another room. Importantly, phones were silenced or powered off, and participants reported minimal conscious thoughts about their devices. Despite this, performance systematically improved as physical distance from the phone increased. Individuals whose phones were in another room demonstrated higher working memory capacity and stronger fluid intelligence than those with phones in sight. These effects occurred without changes in sustained attention or self-reported distraction, indicating that people were not “checking out”—they were simply operating with fewer cognitive resources available.
Why the Brain Pays a Price
The study’s core insight is that attention is not only about where focus is directed, but also about how resources are allocated. Smartphones are uniquely personal, goal-relevant objects. Even when not consciously attended to, they remain high-priority stimuli that the brain must monitor or inhibit. This background effort consumes the same limited-capacity attentional resources that support reasoning, learning, and problem-solving. As a result, fewer resources remain available for complex cognitive work. Turning the phone face down or powering it off did not eliminate the effect; only physical separation reliably restored cognitive capacity.
Dependence Amplifies the Effect
Notably, the cognitive cost of smartphone presence was greatest among individuals who reported greater device dependence. Those who relied more heavily on their phones in daily life experienced greater performance decrements when the phone was nearby—and greater benefits when it was removed. Emotional attachment alone did not explain the effect. This distinction suggests that the brain drain is driven less by enjoyment or liking and more by the perceived necessity of constant access. The more the device is integrated into one’s functioning, the more cognitive bandwidth it silently consumes.
Implications for Learning, Performance, and Development
Although the study focused on young adults, the implications extend well beyond the laboratory. Working memory and fluid intelligence underpin learning, decision-making, creativity, and self-regulation. If these resources are routinely taxed by smartphones, everyday performance may suffer in classrooms, workplaces, training environments, and even social interactions. For developing minds, the concern is magnified. Children and adolescents are still building executive capacity; environments that consistently drain cognitive resources may interfere with the consolidation of focus, reasoning, and mental endurance. The absence of subjective awareness makes this risk particularly insidious—people feel focused while functioning below their potential.
Practical Steps to Reduce Smartphone-Induced Brain Drain
Create phone-free work/study zones: Keep smartphones in a separate room during tasks that require deep thinking, studying, or decision-making. Distance matters more than silence.
Structure intentional separation: Build predictable periods of disconnection (e.g., meetings, practices, study blocks) so separation does not trigger anxiety or vigilance.
Model cognitive boundaries: Adults, coaches, and leaders should visibly put away their phones during focus-intensive activities to normalize separation and protect group attention.
Protect learning environments: Classrooms and training settings should prioritize removing physical phones, not just implementing usage policies, to preserve cognitive capacity.
Reduce functional dependence: Gradually shifting tasks away from constant reliance on the phone may lessen the cognitive pull these devices exert over time.
By demonstrating that smartphones drain cognitive capacity even when unused, this study reframes digital distraction as an environmental issue rather than a matter of willpower. Focus is not only compromised by what we choose to attend to, but also by what we must continuously ignore. In an always-connected world, preserving attention may require something deceptively simple: putting the phone somewhere else.
Dr. Kyle Stull
Reference
Ward, A. F., Duke, K., Gneezy, A., & Bos, M. W. (2017). Brain drain: The mere presence of one’s own smartphone reduces available cognitive capacity. Journal of the Association for Consumer Research, 2(2), 140–154. https://doi.org/10.1086/691462
Short Videos, Shortened Focus: Why Developing Minds Are Especially at Risk
January 1, 2026
Short-form video platforms have become the default for entertainment, information, and even skill exposure for younger generations. Designed to deliver rapid stimulation with minimal cognitive effort, these platforms shape how attention is deployed long before it is fully developed. In a controlled EEG study examining mobile phone short-form video addiction tendencies, researchers found that higher levels of addictive use were associated with reduced self-control and weakened neural markers of executive attention. While these effects were observed in healthy young adults, the findings raise a more serious concern for children and adolescents—whose attentional systems are still under construction. When the neural circuits responsible for focus and self-regulation are repeatedly under-engaged, the long-term cost may be a generation that struggles to sustain attention when it matters most.
Attention and Self-Control in a Developing Brain
The study demonstrated a clear negative relationship between short-form video addiction tendency and self-control, alongside reduced attention control. Even though participants did not show measurable behavioral deficits during the attention task, the underlying neural signals told a different story. This distinction is especially important for younger populations. Children and adolescents often appear “functional” in structured settings while still developing fragile attentional habits beneath the surface. Because executive control matures gradually through adolescence, repeated exposure to low-effort, high-reward media may interfere with the normal strengthening of self-regulatory skills. In effect, the brain learns to expect stimulation without effort, making sustained focus, patience, and deliberate practice increasingly difficult.
Executive Control Under Strain
The strongest finding in the study was a reduction in frontal theta activity during moments that required executive control. Theta oscillations in the prefrontal cortex are critical for managing conflict, sustaining attention, and regulating behavior under cognitive load. When individuals with higher short-form video addiction tendencies faced attentional interference, their brains showed less engagement of these control systems. For adults, this may reflect reduced efficiency. For younger users, it may shape development itself. If the brain repeatedly avoids recruiting executive networks during formative years, those circuits may fail to strengthen optimally. This helps explain why constant scrolling—even through “productive” content like sports highlights or instructional clips—can still undermine attentional growth. The medium trains rapid disengagement rather than mastery.
Implications for Parents, Coaches, and Mentors
Restriction is protective, not punitive: Because attentional control is still developing in youth, limiting access to short-form social media is a form of cognitive protection, not deprivation.
Content quality does not negate delivery costs: Even skill-based clips encourage fragmented attention and rapid reward cycling, which conflict with how expertise and focus are built.
Practice demands sustained effort: Sports, music, academics, and leadership all require prolonged concentration—skills that short-form media actively discourages.
Adults must set structural boundaries: Children cannot self-regulate an environment engineered to bypass self-control; responsibility rests with parents, coaches, and educators.
Delay matters: The later a young person is exposed to high-frequency short-form feeds, the more mature their attentional systems will be when they encounter them.
By revealing that short-form video addiction tendencies weaken neural engagement during executive control demands, this study highlights a subtle but meaningful risk—one that becomes far more serious when applied to developing minds. While short-form media may feel harmless or even educational, its design trains attention to fragment, disengage, and seek constant novelty. For younger generations still learning how to focus, this pattern may permanently shape how their brains allocate effort. Limiting exposure is not about resisting technology—it is about preserving the conditions necessary for attention, discipline, and long-term growth to take root.
Dr. Kyle Stull
Reference
Yan, T., Su, C., Xue, W., Hu, Y., & Zhou, H. (2024). Mobile phone short video use negatively impacts attention functions: An EEG study. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 18, 1383913. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2024.1383913
December 15, 2025
For decades, many believed that elite performers—from athletes to musicians—were born with exceptional talent. However, researchers have shown that extraordinary skill is more often the result of deliberate, highly structured practice rather than innate ability. This approach, sometimes referred to as purposeful practice, emphasizes targeted efforts to improve specific weaknesses, driven by focus, feedback, and consistency.
What Sets Deliberate Practice Apart
Unlike routine repetition, deliberate practice requires clear goals, constant feedback, and stepping outside the comfort zone. Each session targets well-defined aspects of performance—such as precision, timing, or technique—and demands full concentration. Studies reveal that these conditions accelerate the brain’s adaptive changes, sharpening neural circuits responsible for complex skills more effectively than casual training.
The Role of Effort and Feedback
Researchers highlight that expertise grows when individuals embrace errors as valuable data. Mistakes point directly to the skills needing refinement, making immediate feedback crucial. This process can be mentally taxing, as it often feels uncomfortable to operate at the edge of one’s ability, but it’s precisely this discomfort that drives growth. Over years of sustained, focused practice, these incremental improvements compound into exceptional performance.
Practical Steps to Get Started
Define a single, specific goal for each practice session—avoid vague targets like “get better.”
Break skills into smaller components and focus on improving one element at a time.
Seek timely feedback from a coach, mentor, or video recordings to identify mistakes quickly.
Work just beyond your comfort zone, challenging yourself enough to learn without becoming overwhelmed.
Track progress consistently to stay motivated and adapt strategies as needed.
By committing to this intentional approach, anyone—whether in sports, music, or business—can unlock a higher level of mastery, proving that expertise is built, not simply born.
Dr. Kyle Stull
December 1, 2025
Modern coaching goes far beyond helping someone set goals; it’s about shaping the inner drive that sustains progress. Drawing on Self-Determination Theory (SDT), researchers emphasize that lasting change occurs when individuals feel genuinely engaged, competent, and connected. Rather than viewing motivation as a prerequisite for coaching, this perspective sees it as something that can be cultivated during the coaching process itself.
The Power of Autonomy, Competence, and Connection
According to SDT, three psychological needs—autonomy, competence, and relatedness—form the foundation for growth and well-being. Coaching that respects personal choice, helps individuals recognize their strengths, and builds supportive relationships can meet these needs in powerful ways. When a client feels free to set their own course, believes in their abilities, and experiences an authentic connection with the coach, they are far more likely to embrace new challenges and follow through on their goals.
Moving from Compliance to Commitment
The research shows that coaching conversations often spark a shift from acting out of external pressure—like rewards, guilt, or expectations—to self-endorsed motivation that aligns with one’s values and interests. This transition is critical because goals pursued for personal reasons tend to be more sustainable and fulfilling. Coaches play a key role by creating environments where clients feel heard, understood, and safe enough to explore and internalize their motivations.
Practical Steps Coaches Can Apply Today
Start with choice: Allow clients to set the agenda for each session to strengthen ownership.
Spot and amplify strengths: Highlight small successes and capabilities to build competence and confidence.
Create a supportive space: Use empathy, active listening, and genuine curiosity to foster trust and connection.
Reframe imposed goals: Help clients link external demands to personal values to boost authentic motivation.
Minimize controlling language: Replace “must” or “should” with open-ended, autonomy-supportive questions.
By grounding coaching in these principles, coaches can help clients unlock deeper motivation, achieve meaningful goals, and sustain progress long after the coaching sessions have ended.
Dr. Kyle Stull
November 20, 2025
In fields as diverse as esports, medicine, and music, countless hours of effort do not guarantee excellence. This research underscores that how we practice matters far more than how long we practice. Simply repeating the same moves or routines—what some call naïve practice—leads to plateaus and reinforces bad habits. Elite performers distinguish themselves by practicing purposefully, setting clear goals, experimenting with new strategies, and maintaining mental focus throughout each session.
Beyond the 10,000-Hour Myth
Popularized by bestselling books, the “10,000-hour rule” often misleads people to believe that sheer time on task yields mastery. The study argues that this view misses the point: it’s not a magic number but the quality and intention behind those hours. For example, focusing on a single song for years won’t improve a musician’s versatility; similarly, gamers or athletes who rehearse without adapting or reflecting gain little despite massive time investment.
The Power of Purposeful Practice
Purposeful and deliberate practice involves identifying specific areas of improvement, using feedback to refine skills, and operating just beyond the comfort zone. This focused approach strengthens learning and avoids reinforcing errors. Real-world cases—from competitive gamers refining mental strategies to physicians enhancing diagnostic skills through structured feedback—show that progress accelerates when effort is goal-directed and reflective.
Practical Steps to Practice with Purpose
Set a specific objective for every practice session rather than vague aims like “get better.”
Break down skills into smaller components and target one element at a time.
Seek timely feedback—from a coach, mentor, or peer review—to catch errors early.
Challenge yourself just beyond your comfort zone, where mistakes become opportunities to learn.
Reflect after each session on what worked, what didn’t, and what to try next.
This approach demonstrates that “practice makes perfect” isn’t quite right—only mindful, structured practice drives meaningful improvement. By adopting these methods, anyone can transform routine effort into real progress.
Dr. Kyle Stull
The Hidden Power of Grit: How Small Efforts Compound into Greatness
November 1, 2025
In sport, talent and opportunity often take the spotlight—but new research shows that grit may be the real differentiator in long-term success. A study of elite youth soccer players revealed that athletes who displayed higher levels of grit—defined as perseverance and passion for long-term goals—consistently accumulated more hours of practice throughout their development. Even modest early differences in practice time grew exponentially over the years, demonstrating that mental traits can amplify effort in ways that produce significant performance gaps later on.
From Small Gains to Big Leaps
The research uncovered a clear “snowball effect.” Grittier athletes didn’t just work harder at one point in time—they sustained that effort year after year. By age 15, players high in grit had logged nearly 20% more total practice hours than their peers. Interestingly, two components of grit—consistency of interest and perseverance of effort—influenced performance at different stages. Consistency of interest helped athletes stay engaged early in their development, while perseverance of effort became crucial during adolescence when training demands intensified.
Why This Matters for Developing Athletes
This pattern highlights an essential lesson for coaches, parents, and performers alike: success isn’t just about starting strong—it’s about sustaining effort when motivation wanes. Developing grit requires cultivating both long-term passion and the discipline to persist through setbacks. By emphasizing mental skills alongside physical training, coaches can help young athletes build the resilience needed to thrive through the natural ups and downs of their journey toward expertise.
How to Apply It
Encourage goal consistency: Help athletes connect daily practice to long-term aspirations.
Reward persistence, not just results: Celebrate effort and discipline as much as performance outcomes.
Normalize struggle: Reframe challenges as essential steps in growth rather than signs of failure.
Reflect regularly: Use brief check-ins to reinforce progress and recalibrate focus when needed.
Over time, these practices transform small, steady efforts into extraordinary achievements—proving that grit may be the ultimate competitive advantage in sport.
Dr. Kyle Stull
Reference
Cocić, D., Larkin, P., Hendry, D. T., Williams, A. M., O’Connor, D., & Bilalić, M. (2025). How small differences grow over time – The snowball effect of grit on practice in sport. International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 23(5), 830–852. https://doi.org/10.1080/1612197X.2024.2359476
Balancing the Triangle: Strengthening the Coach–Parent–Athlete Relationship
In youth sports, the relationship between coach, parent, and athlete often determines whether participation becomes a source of growth—or of stress. Drawing from sport psychology and family systems theory, sport psychologist Jon Hellstedt established a Coach–Parent–Athlete model that explains how the balance of involvement and communication among these three roles directly influences an athlete’s performance, motivation, and overall development. This “Little League triangle” functions as an interconnected system. When boundaries blur or communication breaks down, conflict and pressure replace cooperation. But when roles are clear and support is balanced, young athletes thrive both in performance and personal development.
Understanding Involvement and Boundaries
The sports psychologist reframed family systems theory concepts of enmeshment and disengagement for the athletic context, identifying three types of parental involvement: underinvolved, moderately involved, and overinvolved.
Underinvolved parents provide little emotional or logistical support, leaving athletes to rely heavily on coaches or peers.
Moderately involved parents combine structure with autonomy—supporting participation, respecting coaching authority, and encouraging self-directed growth.
Overinvolved parents blur personal goals with their child’s success, often becoming controlling or anxious about performance and winning.
Healthy boundaries allow each member of the triangle—coach, parent, athlete—to fulfill their role without overstepping or disconnecting.
Coaching Within the System
Coaches are not just trainers; they are part of a family dynamic. When a coach ignores the parent–athlete relationship, they risk becoming a “substitute parent” or a distant authority figure. Researchers suggest that understanding family dynamics helps coaches manage emotions, avoid triangulation, and promote communication that strengthens the athlete’s well-being. The best results emerge when coaches work with parents rather than against them—transforming potential conflict into collaboration.
From Control to Connection
Research shows that moderate involvement leads to the healthiest developmental outcomes. Athletes from these families experience open communication, realistic expectations, and emotional safety. They learn responsibility, resilience, and self-motivation—qualities far more enduring than short-term wins. When coaches and parents share a unified, athlete-centered approach, the youth sports environment becomes a platform for lifelong confidence and growth.
Practical Steps for Coaches and Parents
Define roles early: Host preseason meetings to clarify expectations about attendance, behavior, and communication.
Encourage shared goals: Align performance and developmental goals among coach, parent, and athlete through regular check-ins.
Promote athlete autonomy: Help young athletes set their own training and mindset goals to foster independence.
Communicate consistently: Provide honest, balanced feedback and keep parents informed before issues escalate.
Model composure and empathy: Show patience during conflict and redirect discussions toward the athlete’s well-being, not control or blame.
By recognizing the coach–parent–athlete relationship as an interconnected system, coaches can turn potential tension into teamwork that builds better athletes, healthier families, and stronger communities.
Dr. Kyle Stull
Reference
Hellstedt, J. C. The coach/parent/athlete relationship. The Sport Psychologist, 1(2), 151–160. https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1989-20980-001
Parental Involvement: Understanding the Dynamics of Youth Sport Behavior
Competitive youth sports place parents in a uniquely visible and influential position. While many assume that parental enthusiasm simply reflects support, research reveals a more complex reality. Parents shape the sporting environment not only through encouragement but also through the tone, timing, and intent of their comments during games. Their reactions—ranging from praise to criticism—can affect both the emotional climate of competition and the developmental experience of young athletes. A recent examination of youth sport contexts shows that parental communication is deeply intertwined with personal beliefs, emotions, and game-specific pressures.
What Shapes Parental Reactions on the Sidelines
Parents’ verbal behaviors lie on a continuum from supportive to controlling, reflecting how they respond to children’s successes, mistakes, and game situations. Supportive comments—such as praise and general encouragement—help athletes feel noticed and valued. In contrast, controlling comments, such as direct instructions or negative feedback, aim to influence specific behaviors on the field.
Research found that parents often shift along this continuum as the game unfolds. Emotional investment, perceived expertise, and sensitivity to other spectators all contribute to how parents communicate in the moment. Rather than fixed patterns, parental reactions emerge from the dynamic relationship between the parent, the child, and the broader sport environment.
The Role of Emotion, Empathy, and Expertise
Parents frequently share their child's emotions, feeling disappointment, excitement, or frustration as though the performance were their own. This empathy can heighten reactions during critical game moments—tight scores, rivalry matches, or final minutes—leading to louder, more urgent, or more controlling commentary.
Additionally, parents who believe they possess strong sports knowledge often feel justified in offering technical feedback. They may critique positioning, decision-making, or tactical execution, assuming their insights help performance. Yet, these attempts to guide play from the stands can inadvertently generate tension—both for the athlete and for fellow spectators who interpret such comments differently. Game-critical moments often amplify these tendencies, creating an emotionally charged sideline environment.
When Support Turns into Pressure
Although many parents intend to be helpful, certain forms of involvement can feel overwhelming to young athletes. Frequent instructions or negative comments can increase anxiety and diminish enjoyment—especially when athletes interpret these messages as signs of disappointment rather than guidance. Even parents who try to balance positive and negative feedback may struggle to manage their emotional responses when the stakes feel high.
Negative or derogatory comments, while less common, pose particular risks. These include sarcastic remarks, expressions of frustration, or criticisms directed at children or officials. Such behaviors not only affect the targeted child but can also escalate tension in the stands, influencing how other parents respond.
Practical Steps Toward Healthier Sideline Behavior
Recognizing the powerful role parents play in youth sport, researchers highlight several strategies to foster healthier environments for young athletes:
Emphasize encouragement over evaluation. General praise supports confidence without placing excessive focus on outcomes.
Limit real-time instruction. Allow coaches to direct play while using post-game moments for calm, constructive reflection.
Be mindful of emotional intensity. High-stakes situations often distort reactions—pausing before commenting protects children from unnecessary pressure.
Acknowledge personal connection. Understanding one’s own emotional investment helps reduce overreactions rooted in empathy or identification.
Model respectful behavior. Children and other parents mirror the tone set by adults, making composure a powerful teaching tool.
By adopting these practices, parents can contribute to more supportive sporting climates—ones in which athletes feel encouraged, understood, and free to enjoy the developmental value of sport.
Dr. Kyle Stull
Reference
Holt, N. L., Tamminen, K. A., Black, D. E., Sehn, Z. L., & Wall, M. P. (2008). Parental involvement in competitive youth sport settings. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 9(5), 663–685. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2007.08.001